International Relations (IR) is defined as the study of foreign affairs and the form of relationship among neighbors and other countries. IR has many different kinds of complexes including social, economic, military and cultural relations. These types of relations are important players in diplomacy. International relations have always used globalization for understanding multiple cultures. IR focuses on “how countries, people and organizations interact and globalization is making a profound effect on International relations”. (MATTHES, 2010)
In the current scenario Pakistan is fighting religious militancy that is vital to U.S interest. Pakistan has concerns about regional and global terrorism, efforts for stabilizing neighboring Afghanistan, nuclear weapons production, Kashmir problem, Pak-India tensions and economic development (Kronstadt, 2010). Pak-China relations are always been important for both the countries. The relationship is based on respect, trust and mutual benefit. Pakistan is the first country to recognize People’s Republic of China. Pakistan established its diplomatic relations with China in 1951, while the actual mutual relationship started in early 1960s when Pakistan supported China’s presence in UN, 1961. Pakistan sincerely helped China in fighting isolation. Pakistan helped by signing an air transport and a trade agreement to help China establish contact with different countries, especially Islamic world. China, too, played a significant role in supporting Pakistan to achieve ceasefire in Indo-Pakistan war, 1965 and it issued warnings to India. China also helped in compensating the loss of war and provided military equipments including aircrafts and tanks. In the era of 1960’s, Pak-China relations evolved due to mutual and confidence (RAHMAN, 2006). According to Aneja (2006) bi-lateral relationship between Pakistan and China has undergone through trust, constant and “all-weather relationship”. This strategic friendship has survived because of the geo-strategic changes for maintaining peace.
1970’s witnessed invasion of Afghanistan by Soviet Union. The Invasion caused a hostile situation between Pakistan and India, threatening peace in the region. At this time, China stood by Pakistan and condemned this invasion as it was a threat to peace. To solve the situation China and Pakistan, together, developed strategies as China provided military supplies to Afghan- resistance groups and also provided political support to Pakistan. Throughout 1980’s the relationship between the two continued to become stronger. China also improved its relationship with India in this era but this act was not unfavorable to Pakistan. Pakistan supported China in multiple issues including Chinese national interests in sovereignty over Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Tibet and certain issues of democracy and human rights. Throughout 1990’s, Pakistan was under U.S sanctions and at that time China was the key source of military hardware. With this the relationship moved towards defense-related cooperation. Support of China for Pakistan’s missile and military programs became an annoyance for China-US and China-Indian relationships. US was exerting pressure on China to cut-off high technology links with Pakistan but China remained consistent in its commitment towards strengthening Pakistan’s defense potential.
In 1998 India performed nuclear tests. Indian defense and prime described China as a security threat. Chinese media reported that “India’s explosions have sabotaged the fragile trust built up with Beijing over the past decade” (RAHMAN, 2006). A new consultation phase started between Pakistan and China, after Indian nuclear attacks. China showed its understanding that Pakistan should go for nuclear tests, too. In kargil war, 1999 China was at a neutral position. China asked both the countries to resolve the conflict. Pakistan understood China’s willingness to improve its relations with India. After 9/11 attacks Pakistan gave its airspace to be used by US but it was made clear by Pakistan that this providence would not allow any circumstances to US to undermine Pak-China relations. Pakistan-China relations are on a solid connection because both the countries compensate for their strategic interests. (Fani, 2009)
From 2000 to 2001 China played a neutral part to end tensions between Pakistan and India due to their military standoff. China performed telephone diplomacy. Chinese government also appreciated Pervaiz Musharraf’s government policies regarding antiterrorism and peaceful resolution of multiple conflicts with India. In 2004, they did their first antiterrorism military exercise, jointly, called “Friendship 2004”, in Xinjiang. In 2005 they signed the treaty of cooperation, friendship, combating terrorism and good relations as neighbors. Pak-China economic relations are building day by day (RAHMAN, 2006). The expansion in economic relations marks development from 2000-2010 and can be termed as “decade of institutionalizing Pak-China economic relations”. From 2006 to 2009 the import export relations between China and Pakistan increased at a significant rate (RAHMAN, 2011). In 2011, Pak-China celebrates its 60 years of cultural relations that can be described as “higher than mountains and deeper than oceans”. (Pakistan Conflict monitor, 2011). The recent strategy is to have China-US Financial interdependence and a Shaky Road towards New Global Economic Architecture (GEA). (Khokhar, 2011)
Literature Review
Formation of imagery of foreign nations has always been a subject of study describing how different nations see their neighbors. This formation of images is labeled as framing. It has been defined as a theory of media-effects that holds factual information, using different script structures or frames, causing great differences in the perception pattern of readers. (Dell’Orto et al; 2004) After getting the media exposure people collect narrative, arguments, and cultural resources from all available media types in their sense-making and discussions within the public spheres (WU, 2011).
Media plays an important role in framing the image of foreign countries. The media frame is described as “an organizing mechanism for media content. As such, it provides immediate context to the recipient of the frame, through the selection, emphasis or exclusion of specific facts or ideas” (DIMITROVA & CONNOLLY-AHERN; 2007). Study conducted by Dell’Orto et al (2004) finds media framing research to establish whether message- frames affect readers’ perception about the foreign countries, their governments, leaders and people. Keeping this in account, participants are randomly assigned reading news story about different countries. The news content is framed democratically or non-democratically in the study. The sample of 67 undergraduate students is taken. It has been found that the perception is more negative regarding the government rather than the people of the country. The readers favored non-democracy more as compared to democracy.
China is the second largest importer of oil in the world. Pakistan is the third country to recognize People’s Republic of China. Pakistan is important for China as it is one of the mid range powers of South Asian region. Geographical area of Pakistan puts China on the major route between China-Central Asia and China-Middle East region. For maintain strategic and economic connections with these regions China requires a safer passage through Pakistan. (Kumar, 2006)
China is supportive of Pakistan in South Asia and the relations among the two are more pronounced today. They are having strategic understanding that is leading towards a strong relationship (Aljazeera Centre of Studies, 2011). Naz (2011) explores Pak-China friendly relations over 60 years. She conducted an opinionative survey finding the views of Pakistan’s mainstream, nationalists and religious political parties, militant organization and public. The views demonstrate that China is having political and socio-economic support for Pakistan. These views are found because of the positive framing of China in the media as both are having friendly relationship since the birth of Pakistan. Referring the above issue Justus & Hess (2006) state that media outlets are global in nature, and they are overlapping as well. It helps in producing a remarkably rapid and fluid dissemination of information that may cross cultural and national borders.
SHI et al (2011) states that with the penetration of newer technology in Chinese media, people of china are having access to the media. Survey is conducted to get the opinion of the Chinese people about America. It has been found that the media is framing the image of U.S negatively and are focusing more on anti-Americanism. The Chinese are having more negative and critical views about America because of the access to the media framing of the America within china.
Sparks (2010) analyzes coverage of China in UK national daily press, 2008. Content analysis of articles is conducted. The study reveals that serious coverage of China is found to be rare in most UK newspapers. UK covers China using large scale and tragic events. Smaller events, although tragic, in China are not universally reported. Serious attention to China coverage is presented only in quality press i-e Financial Times newspaper has focused with significant attention to the country. Majority of UK newspapers has little serious coverage regarding Chinese issues. Non-serious coverage is also evident in the media portrayal of Ukranian political crisis, 2000-2001. BAYSHA & HALLAHAN (2004) examines three TV channels, one newspaper and one internet site as they all covered the political crisis in Ukrain. Content analysis of 829 news stories is conducted. It has been found that no organization covered the issue in a balanced way and framed the issue as they were the state-owned firms. SUN (2008) examines Japanese framing of China during Cultural Revolution in China. Japanese journalists posts questions like “who are we?” and “what do we stand for?”. Japanese used frames of culture and norms to portray China, leaving a question in audience’s mind about whether the Cultural Revolution is good or not. Xiao & Mair (2006) analyze image of China as ‘tourist destination’ in major English newspapers. 35 articles from 20 sources are used as a sample. It is found that China is having a cultural heritage and is portrayed as having a tourist gaze. It has four types of images in the English newspapers i-e “the durable,” “the mysterious,” “the exotic,” and “the splendid”, keeping in mind the cultural heritage. Kong (2003) analyzes the U.S coverage of China’s entry into the WTO. Content analysis of the total of 282 news articles is conducted in U.S regional newspapers. It is found that the regional economy can be a predictor of regional newspaper’s coverage. The newspapers framed the issue according to the regional economic structures and favorability. Li (2009) investigates China’s image constructed by ABC (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) television network. Current affairs programs are analyzed. Findings show that the images framed by ABC network are influenced by historical baggage, and the global media agenda subjugated by United States.
Parsons & Xiaoge (2001) examines news framing by the Chinese People's Daily and U.S New York Times while reporting bombing of Chinese Embassy and its related events. It is conducted through the textual analysis of certain keywords. It has been found that both, China and U.S selected facts that fitted in their understanding of the reality. China framed the issue as an intervention by U.S while U.S framed china as catering propaganda. This portrayal is constructing weak relations between the two. United States has covered China more in its newspapers because of the nature of negative relationship. Huang & Mei Leung (2005) discuss the concept of “media representation of the other” which proposes that Western media tends to be subjective and biased towards third world countries and it represent them as a “bad other”. China is portrayed with negative frames in SARS epidemic crisis in china, 2003. It shows that China has appropriate health and hygienic conditions within the country. This study shows that U.S has revealed China negatively even portraying its own national problems. ZARZECKI (1999) explores that Russia has soviet policy of selling arms. China and India, both, have purchased advanced weapons from Russia. It is believed that Russia policy towards India and China would disruptive due to the U.S-Russian tensions over arms’ issues. And U.S repeatedly has already accused Russia of exporting arms. LEE (2002) demonstrates that The New York Times portrays China policy, 1990-2000 according to the US interests as to change China for peaceful evolution. This is another form of framing by U.S, still having no acceptance attitude towards China. U.S-China relations are defined by Hook & PU (2006) as “America is fond of war. But the Chinese people, because they have experienced the Japanese invasion, are more concerned with peace”. While Khan & Safdar (2010) examine the framing the image of U.S in elite Pakistani newspapers after 9/11 incident. Content analysis of published editorials of The Dawn and Nawa-i-Waqt is done, from 11th September 2001 to 10th September 2004. The sample is 394 editorials in both the newspapers. Findings describe that U.S is having a negative image in Pakistani elite newspapers after 9/11 incident.
Certain comparative studies are conducted to see how media in different countries frame a particular issue. A study conducted by Akhavan-Majid & Ramaprasad (1998) examines framing of Fourth United Nations conference on women by U.S and the Chinese newspapers, 1995. It uses quantitative content analysis and qualitative assessment of overall news frames and editorials. It has been found that the U.S coverage contains criticism on China, as a communist nation and the women issues are less reported. Chinese coverage reflects quality framing and it focuses on the feminist movement. Chinese coverage found to be having less favorable towards china but U.S coverage found to be propagandist. This study is evident that U.S-China relations are not having good terms since 1998. U.S framing of China is found to be negative because of the nature of their relations. This context of framing is defined as “Frames bias for action” (Perri, 2005). The action is the change in perception that the portrayal is intended to do. U.S portrayal of China is biased because the relation between the two is weak in terms of negotiations and friendliness, as both are the economic powers of the world. Dai & Hyun (2009) conducts a comparative study using framing analysis on the coverage of North Korean nuclear testing by news agencies of U.S, China and South Korea i-e Associated Press, Xinhua, and Yonhap. The local South Korean news agency Yonhap framed the nuclear testing with peace frames whereas Associated Press (USA) connected nuclear tests to ‘War on Terror’ frames and Xinhua promoted negotiation principle while handling the issue. Similarly, Basrur (2009) reports quantitatively that Pak-India relations are basically a nuclear rivalry. India and Pakistan, both, are having inconsistent attitude in strategic thinking. Ross & Bantimaroudis (2006) conduct content analysis of one year publication of news stories and editorials discussing Israeli leaders and Palestinian territories in New York Times newspaper. The coverage frames Israeli leader Arafat as foe to United States. And terrorism is framed as a leading enemy of United States. United States frames issues in the context of its own interests and use its media to cater its own devised policy.
Political policy making plays an important role in framing of certain elements within China. The study conducted by Yao et al (2011) includes the content analysis of religious news coverage in People’s Daily newspaper. It involves a 10 year period of coverage from 1996 to 2005. It finds positive tone towards religion after 2001, when a major policy change was devised by political leaders of china. There is an increase in newspaper articles focusing having a prejudicial tone towards different religions. Discussing the portrayal of religious issues, RICHARDSON (2009) examines how British Muslims are represented in British newspapers during elections of 1997, 2001 and 2005. Two-weeks reporting by newspapers, prior to Election Day are sampled, with text referring to ‘Islam’, ‘Muslim’ or ‘Moslem’. The findings are evident that the British framed Muslims with a negative stance regarding their religion. In this way British has constructed a negative image of Muslims within British. This portrayal is effective in the relationship between the two.